Fricative consonant is made by forcing air through a narrow channel made by placing two articulators close together. Affricate is a complex consonant that begins in a plosive and ends as a fricative. This is the main difference between fricative and affricative. Fricative consonants are produced by air flowing through a narrow channel made by placing two articulators close together.
The air that escapes through this narrow channel often makes a hissing sound. Fricatives are continuant consonants, i. Fricatives can be categorized into five groups based on their place of articulation. Labiodental fricatives: They are produced when the lower lip comes into contact with the upper lip. Dental fricatives: These fricatives are produced when the tongue is placed between the teeth; the air escapes through the gaps between the teeth.
Alveolar fricatives: Alveolar fricatives are produced when the air escapes through the narrow passage along the centre of the tongue. Palato-alveolar fricatives: These fricatives are produced when the air escapes through a passage along the centre of the tongue; the tongue is in contact with an area slightly further back than the alveolar fricatives. Glottal fricatives : Glottal fricatives are produced by the frication between the vocal cords. An affricate is a complex consonant that begins in a plosive and ends as a fricative.
An affricative is usually homorganic, i. Some of the languages in Africa and the Pacific islands which fall into this class have both voiced and voiceless plosives but the voiced members of the class are prenasalized, that is, they begin with a part during which air is flowing out through the nasal passage. An example is Paamese Oceanic ; Vanuatu. Absence of any voicing contrast also occurs sporadically in East Asia. Approximately another third This type is dominant in the most southerly parts of Asia, where it is typical of the Dravidian languages as well as languages from other families, and is prevalent in New Guinea.
It is also well-represented in Africa and the Americas, but is largely absent from Europe and western Asia. These languages most typically have some fricatives but only voiceless ones. An African example is Yoruba Defoid , Niger-Congo ; southeastern Nigeria , which has three contrasting pairs of voiced and voiceless plosives, as well as three voiceless fricatives.
Chickasaw , mentioned earlier, also belongs in this group although it has only the one contrasting plosive pair. It has four voiceless fricatives but no voiced ones. Ika Chibchan ; Colombia and Murle Surmic , Nilo-Saharan ; Ethiopia are unusual members of the group since they are reported as having only voiced fricatives, which therefore do not contrast with voiceless counterparts.
Huave Huavean ; Oaxaca, Mexico is reported to have some voiceless and some voiced fricatives, but no pairs at the same place of articulation, so this language also belongs in this group. This group amounts to Languages of this group are dominant in Europe and western Asia and also very common in Africa, but are quite rare outside these areas of the Old World.
Most of the principal languages of European colonialism such as Portuguese , English , French and Russian , now widely used outside their original homelands, belong to this group, and their influence on indigenous languages in areas of their spread is likely to "recruit" progressively more languages into the group if the indigenous languages are not simply replaced.
Note that Spanish is not treated as having a voicing contrast in plosives since the sounds written with the letters b, d, g are not pronounced as plosives in most of their occurrences in speech but as voiced fricatives or approximants.
Spanish therefore belongs to the final group of languages in this classification, those with a voicing contrast in fricatives but not in plosives. Only a relatively small proportion of the languages, 6. These languages do not show much tendency to cluster geographically except for a small group in the western subarctic zone, where this pattern is found in the Eskimo-Aleut languages as well as in some of the adjacent Na-Dene languages.
When numbers are pooled across the four categories of languages discussed in the chapter, we see that a voicing contrast in plosives is considerably more common than a voicing contrast in fricatives. In all, or Only or Since there are so many more languages in which a fricative voicing contrast occurs in combination with a plosive voicing contrast than those in which it occurs alone, this suggests that there is some preference for constructing languages in a way that makes fricative voicing "parasitic" on plosive voicing.
We can use the overall frequencies to calculate what numbers would be expected in our sample if plosive voicing and fricative voicing were independently distributed. These calculations show that about languages would be expected to have the combination of the two voicing contrasts, and about 78 would be expected to have a fricative voicing contrast alone.
These numbers are sufficiently different from the observed totals of and 38 to show that the occurrence of fricative voicing is significantly dependent on the presence of plosive voicing in the same language.
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